Finishing Up: Completing HW 4

One thing you need to be aware of as you draft: the difference between regular paragraphs and special paragraphs.  

Special paragraphs tend to appear in a few places.  They appear in Part 1 of Introduction. And at the top of sections/subsections (e.g., as takeaways or roadmap paras).  They can appear in other places too, for example, in a section describing a theoretical model.  They look different from regular paras because they are doing something different from what a regular para does.

All the others paragraphs are regular paragraphs.  These make up the bulk of a research paper.  They appear in Part 2 of the Introduction and following the takeaway or roadmap in the body of sections/subsections.  They are the foot-soldiers that advance the overall argument one point at a time.

Because regular paras all have the same function -- to advance the overall argument by one point -- they should have the same form. That is, they should look the same: be similar in size (~5-6 sentences each) and structure (main point in 1st sentence, other sentences supporting this point).

In sections other than the Introduction, the takeaway helps us plan paragraphs.  

The section (or subsection) takeaway usually provokes a few main questions.  These can be answered by the regular paragraphs that follow.

So, to plan paragraphs in a section:

• Consider what main questions are provoked for the reader who now knows the overall RAP of the paper, the heading of the section they are in, and the main RAP-relevant point of that section. 
• Plan paragraphs to answer these questions.  Some answers may require more than one paragraph, some less.  But broadly, the takeaway reminds us why a paragraph —a  particular collection of sentences with the main point they yield — belongs in the section.

 

3-minute video

 

Once we move past the Introduction into the body of the paper, it gets hard to pull out "good samples" from the Literature — if it were easy, we might not be here, having a class on research writing!  It is also difficult because in the body of the paper, things get quite technical.

 

Here are some tips to guide you as you work.  Ultimately, however, you will need to get feedback from general-interest readers and expert readers.  See how far into the paper general-interest readers can follow the thread of the argument. See what  urgent questions expert readers have that are going unanswered (and answer them). 

 

 

 Because regular paragraphs are regular, they have certain characteristics that all writers should know about:

• • Role: Advance the overall argument by one point. (Not more, not less.)
  • Size: About 5-6 sentences
  • Structure: Usually, an analytical descent from the RAP-relevant main point to the details that support this point. The other option is an analytical ascent.  See the video for an example and a comparison between an ascent and a descent.

 

11-minute video

 

 

 

 

A word on building from the bottom up

We have looked at building paras from the top down: identifying questions provoked by the takeaway and setting out to answer them, one (or more) paras at a time.

However, for some people and especially in some sections, it can be more natural to build from the bottom up.  This process is subconscious but here is a video to give you a sense of how this happens and what you want to watch out for as you build for the bottom. 

In general, make sure you are grouping ideas into a chunk — here, the paragraph — because they are similar in some RAP-relevant way.  There may be details that are similar in ways that are not RAP-relevant. Creating chunks based on such similarity is not useful for the reader.

 

5-minute video

 

 

 

 

When readers can see that each successive paragraph is carrying the argument forward, that usually means there is a clear storyline.

 

To check for storyline,  read only the first sentences of paragraphs in a section.  What do you see?  What do you learn?

 

If you don't see a storyline, there are things you can do.  An easy fix — if the overall structure is roughly OK —  is to deliberately re-use a key term from one first sentence in the next  first sentences. The appearance of this term that remains constant amidst all the other changing words helps readers see that there is an idea being taken forward.  See the video for an example.

 

7-minute video

 

 

 

 

Reference Material

The Little Book of Research Writing, pp. 137-147

 

 

What main questions are provoked by this roadmap at the top of a subsection?

 

In this subsection, we discuss whether moving to a higher income neighborhood affects the academic performance of youth. Then, we offer an explanation for why male and female youth respond differently. Finally, we show how these gender differences also differ by race.

 

Where do skimming readers expect to find answers to these questions? 

Now here is the whole subsection.

 

In this subsection, we discuss whether moving to a higher income neighborhood affects the academic performance of youth. Then, we offer an explanation for why male and female youth respond differently. Finally, we show how these gender differences also differ by race.

  

Although both boys and girls perform worse on standardized tests immediately after the move, the treatment effects diverge over time. In the first year following the random assignment, the challenge of adjustment affected school performance in the direction predicted by theories of social interaction: both boys and girls in the experimental group performed worse than those in the control group. However, several years after random assignment, the treatment effects diverge in a way not easily captured by the standard theories. Although the poor performance persists for boys, girls in the experimental group score higher than those in the control group.

  

It has been well documented that new students adjust faster in schools with greater diversity.  It has been shown that when there is greater diversity, the adjustment period is shorter for both sexes. One explanation for why boys and girls respond differently to the same neighborhoods is that each responds differently to discrimination. A more likely explanation, in our view, is that boys are less likely than girls to adopt new identities in new environments.

 

Trends in academic performance reveal pronounced gender differences as seen in Figure I and there are several plausible explanations for this.  However, such trends also reveal pronounced differences by race. Black males have lower achievement test scores than either White males or Black females, and Black-White differences in wages and annual earnings continue to be more pronounced for males than females, even after controlling for premarket skills.

 

Do skimming readers find answers where they expect to find them?

The roadmap at the top of the subsection provokes 3 questions:

1. Does moving to a higher income neighborhood affect the academic performance of youth?
2. Why do male and female youth respond differently? 
3. How do these gender differences also differ by race?

 

They expect to find answers to these questions easily: in the 1st sentences of the paras that follow.

 

However, they do not. 

 

How would you restructure this subsection?

 

Over the next few questions, we will build a paragraph in 3 steps:

1. Write a RAP-relevant first sentence 

2. Articulate the main question(s) provoked by the first sentence.

2. Sketch an answer 

 

 

QUESTION 1

Consider this 1st sentence for a para:

 

"Perhaps of even greater significance, new firms have a higher survival rate as exporters than do existing firms."

 

Main question(s)  provoked:

QUESTION 2

Here is another 1st sentence

 

"One might hesitate to interpret associations between agronomic inputs and yields as causal."

 

Main question(s) provoked:

QUESTION 3

Here is another 1st sentence

 

"When reforms are weighted by population, we can see that the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) and South Asia regions stand out (figure 5)."

 

Main question(s) provoked:

QUESTION 4

Here is another 1st sentence

 

"In this paper we consider an additional, often-invoked axiom — strategy-proofness — for which there are at least two justifications."

 

Main question(s) provoked:

Question 5

Now, let us try to predict what words readers expect to see as they read.

 

We plan to display the different strata in four parallel rows. The first ___[1]__ will have plants that live on the forest floor and survive with no __[2]___.  The second row will display vegetation that can survive with only 5 percent sunlight: shade- tolerant shrubs, herbs, small trees, and large woody vines.  The third row will display trees that form the __[3]___ layer. The fourth row will display trees that break through the canopy layer, such as the Brazil nut.

 Check how readers engage with a paragraph you have written.

 

BONUS QUESTION: CHECK YOUR OWN PARA

Pick a regular paragraph with at least five sentences from somewhere in the middle of a paper you have written.

Ask readers:

• What question is provoked by the first sentence?
• What is my answer to this question ?
• Could I have made it easier for you to recognize that I was answering your question? 

QUESTION 1

What main point may be extracted from these details?

  

The government has implemented 15 of the 40 recommendations made by ODFR to reduce the time it takes TVCs to register a new business.  It has authorized the creation of a steering committee that will liaise with the National Association of TVCs to simplify regulations affecting TVCs.  It has also funded managerial training for about 2 percent of TVCs in agribusiness, mining, transports, construction, and tourism.

QUESTION 2

What main point may be extracted from these details?

  

According to the GES, an earthquake resulting from slippage of the Tingpa fault would not cause much damage in the Mandahar region. This is due to the distance from the fault line as well ground characteristics in the Mandahar region. But the flooding that would result from the dam breaking at Tillpur would likely cause widespread devastation and loss of life. In preparation for seismic activity along the Tingpa fault, the TBC, along with state and local agencies, has invested more than $20 million since 1995 on earthquake retrofitting for structures in the Mandahar region. However, in the event of such activity, the greatest risk to human life in the region arises from vulnerabilities in the Tillpur dam.

QUESTION 2

What main point may be extracted from these details?

  

Ahmad advocates improving dynamism by using turbochargers.  Turbochargers have been shown to improve dynamism.  However, turbochargers are prohibitively expensive. They cost more than most in the industry can afford. Ivanovich says that dynamism can be improved by increasing pitch. Even a small increase of .025 in pitch can lead to a 6 percent increase in dynamism.  The increase in pitch is inexpensive and accomplished through an adjustment of the rear struts. However, Ivanovich’s approach does not account for the greater load imposed by the on rear struts in the long term. A compromised strut can destabilize related elements in the machine and cause serious injuries. Our goal is to propose a cost-effective method to improve dynamism, without compromising the structural integrity of the machine.

You have built a skeleton draft.  In the coming weeks, you can continue to add paragraphs to this skeleton draft until it becomes a full draft.

 

The video below shows you how to work: how to move text around and create links between chunks of text as you build paragraphs in regular sections.  I am using lorem ipsum text again so that you can focus on visual patterns: how, through repetition and copy-pasting, you can deliberately create linguistic links that readers can recognize. Understanding these visual patterns with made-up text is, I have found, a key skill in learning how to draft effectively.  

 

7-minute video

 

 

 



Open up your HW3  file (the last one you worked on). This is now your Skeleton Draft. It has your Intro and RAP-Outline. And now, we can start growing it by gradually adding paragraphs into the body.

 

Check that you have revised the Intro and Outline using feedback you got at the last meeting. Then, begin building paragraphs in other sections in this growing document:

• Choose a section (or subsection) in the body of the paper and build 5-6 regular paragraphs to follow the takeaway.  
  • If a section has subsections, there will be no regular paragraphs following the section takeaway; the only text separating the section heading from the first subsection heading should be the section takeaway. The regular paragraphs will follow subsection takeaways.

• Apply the structural principles you have learned to get good paragraphs. (It is better to write a few good paragraphs than many bad paragraphs.)  
• In your final meeting, you will share this growing skeleton draft with a peer and receive a final round of feedback.

 

Work slowly and thoughtfully!  I would rather you have fewer GOOD paragraphs than lots of weak ones.  This is how I would like you to keep working in the coming weeks: slowly and steadily, a few hours every week!