Resolution
(COUNTY) Recognizes Pornography as a Public Health Hazard
RECOGNIZING PORNOGRAPHY AS A PUBLIC HEALTH HAZARD IN (COUNTY)
WHEREAS, pornography is creating a public health hazard;[1]
WHEREAS, advances in technology and the widespread availability of the Internet have fueled massive online pornography use—one mainstream website alone reporting 42 billion visits in 2019;[2]
WHEREAS research around the world reveals high rates of online pornography use among adolescents and young adults in countries like Australia,[3] England,[4] Ghana,[5] Poland,[6] South Korea,[7] Sweden,[8] and the United States;[9]
WHEREAS “mainstream” hardcore pornography depicts themes of child sexual abuse, incest, racism, pain, violence, torture, rape, and other forms of sexual assault;
WHEREAS mainstream pornography is contributing to the sexualization of children (e.g., portrayals of adults who look like children, scenarios involving themes of sex between adult/babysitter, teacher/student, coach/student, parent/child, and sexual initiation);[10]
WHEREAS, pornography shapes and distorts sexual expectations and behaviors;[11]
WHEREAS, exposure to pornography often serves as an inappropriate form of sex education for children with detrimental effects;[12]
WHEREAS, pornography exposure contributes to an increase in problematic sexual activity at younger ages,[13] and greater likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behavior such as sending sexually explicit images, hookups, multiple sex partners, group sex, and using substances during sex as young adolescents;[14]
WHEREAS, pornography exposure is associated with low self-esteem, as well as body image and eating disorders,[15]
WHEREAS, pornography treats women as objects[16] and commodities for the viewer’s use, it teaches girls they are to be used and boys to be users;[17]
WHEREAS, pornography use is linked to difficulty in forming or maintaining intimate relationships;[18] dependence on thoughts of pornography to create or maintain sexual excitement with a partner and preference for pornography over sex with a partner;[19] dissatisfaction in marriage,[20] and infidelity;[21]
WHEREAS, these links demonstrate that pornography has a detrimental effect on the family unit;
WHEREAS, pornography often depicts degrading, painful, aggressive and abusive acts as if they are harmless or pleasurable;[22]
WHEREAS pornography fosters less egalitarian and more hostile sexist attitudes of men towards women,[23] increased acceptance of rape myths,[24] greater likelihood of sexual harassment[25] or sexually coercive and forceful behavior by adolescents;[26] increased male sexual aggression against women (effects being more pronounced among men who are predisposed to sexual aggression, who consume pornography with higher frequency, or who use violent pornography);[27] as well as increased verbal and physical aggression among both male and female pornography consumers;[28]
WHEREAS, pornography use is associated with escalation to content featuring themes of risky sexual behaviors, extreme degradation, violence, animals and child sexual exploitation materials (i.e., child pornography);[29]
WHEREAS, pornography increases the demand for prostitution and child sexual exploitation material (i.e., child pornography);[30]
WHEREAS, potential detrimental effects on pornography’s users can impact brain development, structure, and functioning,[31] contribute to emotional[32] and medical illnesses,[33] shape deviant sexual arousal (i.e., animal and/or child pornography use),[34] as well as problematic or harmful sexual behaviors such as child-on-child harmful sexual behaviors[35] (occurring in schools, playgrounds, homes or other settings);
WHEREAS, more than forty recent studies indicate that pornography is potentially biologically addictive, as demonstrated by desensitization of brain reward circuits, increasing strength of conditioned responses, and/or weakening of brain regions involved in executive function;[36]
WHEREAS, pornography is a multibillion-dollar industry that finances, creates and distributes material via the Internet and by other means;
WHEREAS, the inundation of hyper-sexualized materials distributed by the pornography industry desensitizes community conscience, obscures distinction between legal and illegal materials and impedes enforcement of obscenity laws;
WHEREAS, overcoming pornography’s harms is beyond the capability of many afflicted individual to address alone;
WHEREAS, efforts to address prevention, education, and recovery for individuals, families, and communities, due to the harms caused by pornography exposure, must be addressed systematically in ways that hold broader influences accountable and utilize public health channels;
NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, THAT BOTH THE COUNTY COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTY COUNCIL recognize that pornography is a public health hazard leading to a broad spectrum of individual and public health impacts and societal harms;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the County Commissioners and County Council Members call upon the State Legislature to pass legislation repealing Indiana’s Defense to prosecution for dissemination of matter or conducting performance harmful to minors (IC:35-49-3-4) for schools and libraries;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the County Commissioners and County Council recognize the need for education, prevention, research, and policy change at the local, state, and national level in order to address the pornography epidemic that is harming the people of our county, state and nation;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that a copy of this resolution be sent by the County Commissioners and County Council to the Prosecuting Attorney overseeing obscenity prosecution, health and human services, child and family welfare, and education;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that a copy of this resolution be sent by the County Commissioners and County Council to the Mayors overseeing local law enforcement;
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that a copy of this resolution be sent by the County Commissioners and County Council to the Sheriff of (COUNTY).
[1] Miquel Porta, “hazard,” in A Dictionary of Public Health, ed. John M. Last (Oxford University Press, 2018), https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/
9780191844386.001.0001/acref-9780191844386-e-1873 (accessed March 9, 2020).
[2] Pornhub Insights, “The 2019 Year in Review,” last modified December 11, 2019, https://www.pornhub.com/insights/2019-year-in-review; see also Similar Web, “Top Websites Ranking: Top Sites Ranking for All Categories in the World,” https://www.similarweb.com/top-websites/ (accessed January 25, 2021).
[3] Megan S. C. Lim et al., “Young Australians’ Use of Pornography and Associations with Sexual Risk Behaviours,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 41, no. 4 (2017): 438-443, doi:10.1111/1753-6405.12678.
[4] British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), “New Research Commissioned by the BBFC into the Impact of Pornography on Children Demonstrates Significant Support for Age-Verification,” accessed March 4, 2020, https://bbfc.co.uk/sites/default/files/attachments/BBFC%20Research
%20into%20Children%20and%20Pornography%20260919.pdf.
[5] George Anderson and Joseph Oppong, “Youth and Pornography in Ghana: An Ethical Perspective,” American Journal of Social Issues and Humanities 4, no. 4 (July 2014): 200–207.
[6] Aleksandra Diana Dwulit and Piotr Rzymski, “Prevalence, Patterns and Self-Perceived Effects of Pornography Consumption in Polish University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16 (2019): 1-16, doi.10.3390/ijerph16101861.
[7] Chyng Sun et al., “Korean Men’s Pornography Use, Their Interest in Extreme Pornography, and Dyadic Sexual Relationships,” International Journal of Sexual Health, 27, no. 1 (2014): 16-35, doi:10.1080/19317611.2014.927048.
[8] Meghan Donevan and Magdalena Mattebo, “The Relationship between Frequent Pornography Consumption, Behaviors, and Sexual Preoccupancy among Male Adolescents in Sweden,” Sexual and Reproductive Health 12 (2017): 82‒87, doi:10.1016/j.srhc.2017.03.002.
[9] Chiara Sabina, Janis Wolak, and David Finkelhor, “The Nature and Dynamics of Internet Pornography Exposure for Youth,” CyberPsychology & Behavior 11, no. 6 (2008): 691–693, doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0179; Chyng Sun et al., “Pornography and the Male Sexual Script: An Analysis of Consumption and Sexual Relations,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 45, no. 4 (2016): 983-994, doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0391-2.
[10] Marty Machia & Sharon Lamb, “Sexualized Innocence: Effects of Magazine Ads Portraying Adult Women as Sexy Little Girls,” Journal of Media Psychology 21, no. 1 (2009): 15-24, doi:10.1027/1864-1105.21.1.15; Dennis Howitt and Kerry Sheldon, “The Role of Cognitive Distortions in Paedophilic Offending: Internet and Contact Offenders Compared,” Psychology, Crime & Law 13, no. 5 (2007): 469-486, doi:10.1080/10683160601060564; Gail Dines, “Media’s Impact on Youth Sexuality,” (lecture, 2016 AAP National Conference, October 23, 2016), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ma70AlG2mDY; American Psychological Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (2007), https://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf.
[11] Eran Shor, “Age, Aggression, and Pleasure in Popular Online Pornographic Videos,” Violence Against Women 25, no. 8 (2019): 1018-1036, doi:10.1177/1077801218804101. Of note, videos including more than two participants were not included in the analysis; Stacy Gorman, Elizabeth Monk-Turner, and Jennifer N. Fish, “Free Adult Internet Web Sites: How Prevalent Are Degrading Acts?” Gender Issues 27, (2010): 131-145, doi:10.1007/s12147-010-9095-7; Ana J. Bridges et al., “Aggression and Sexual Behavior in Best-Selling Pornography Videos: A Content Analysis Update,” Violence Against Women 16, no. 10 (2010): 1065-1085, doi:10.1177/1077801210382866; Chyng Sun, Matthew B. Ezzell, and Olivia Kendall, “Naked Aggression: The Meaning and Practice of Ejaculation on a Woman’s Face,” Violence Against Women 23, no. 14 (2017): 1710-1729, doi:10.1177/1077801216666723; Kathrin Karsay, Johannes Knoll, and Jörg Matthes, “Sexualizing Media Use and Self-Objectification: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 42, no. 1 (2018): 9-28, doi:10.1177/0361684317743019; Clementina O. Okafor, O. Elijah Efetobor, and Andrew C. Apeh, “An Evaluation of the Correlation Between Pornography and the Sexual Behavior of Nigerian Undergraduates,” African and Global Perspectives 1, no. 1 (2015): 1-14.
[12] Michael Flood, “The Harms of Pornography Exposure Among Children and Young People,” Child Abuse Review 18 (2009): 384-400, doi:10.1002/car.1092; Cordelia Anderson, “Why Pornography is a Public Health Issue” (lecture at the Pornography: A Public Health Crisis U.S. Capitol Symposium, July 14, 2015); Eileen M. Alexy, Ann W. Burgess and Robert A. Prentky, “Pornography Use as a Risk Marker for an Aggressive Pattern of Behavior among Sexually Reactive Children and Adolescents,” Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association 14, no. 6 (2009): 442-453, doi:10.1177/1078390308327137; Jane D. Brown and Kelly L. L'Engle, “X-Rated: Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with U.S. Early Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Media,” Communication Research 36, no. 1 (2009): 129-151, doi:10.1177/0093650208326465; Tori DeAngelis, “Web Pornography’s Effect on Children,” American Psychological Association 38, no. 10 (2007): 50; Carol J. Pardun, Kelly Ladin L’Engle, and Jane D. Brown, “Linking Exposure to Outcomes: Early Adolescents’ Consumption of Sexual Content in Six Media,” Mass Communication and Society 8, no. 2 (2005): 75-91, doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0802_1.
[13] Gail Dines, “Today’s Pornography and the Crisis of Violence Against Women and Children” (lecture at the Pornography: A Public Health Crisis U.S. Capitol Symposium, July 14, 2015); Joris Van Ouytsel, Koen Ponnet, and Michel Walrave, “The Associations Between Adolescents’ Consumption of Pornography and Music Videos and Their Sexting Behavior,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 17, no. 12 (2014): 772-778, doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0365; C. Marston & R. Lewis, “Anal Heterosex Among Young People and Implications for Health Promotion: A Qualitative Study in the UK,” BMJ Open 4, (2014): 1-6, doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-
004996; Eileen M. Alexy, Ann W. Burgess and Robert A. Prentky, “Pornography Use as a Risk Marker for an Aggressive Pattern of Behavior among Sexually Reactive Children and Adolescents,” Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association 14, no. 6 (2009): 442-453, doi:10.1177/1078390308327137; Carol J. Pardun, Kelly Ladin L’Engle, and Jane D. Brown, “Linking Exposure to Outcomes: Early Adolescents’ Consumption of Sexual Content in Six Media,” Mass Communication and Society 8, no. 2 (2005): 75-91, doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0802_1; Natasha E. Latzman et al., “Sexual Offending in Adolescence: A Comparison of Sibling Offenders and Nonsibling Offenders Across Domains of Risk and Treatment Need,” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 20, no. 3 (2011): 245-263, doi:10.1080/10538712.2011.571233; Michele L. Ybarra et al., “X-Rated Material and Perpetration of Sexually Aggressive Behavior Among Children and Adolescents: Is There a Link?” Aggressive Behavior 37, (2011): 1-18, doi:10.1002/ab.20367; Michael C. Seto and Martin L. Lalumière, “What Is So Special About Male Adolescent Sexual Offending? A Review and Test of Explanations through Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin 136, no. 4 (2010): 526-575, doi:10.1037/a0019700.
[14] Gail Dines, “Today’s Pornography and the Crisis of Violence Against Women and Children” (lecture at the Pornography: A Public Health Crisis U.S. Capitol Symposium, July 14, 2015); C. Marston & R. Lewis, “Anal Heterosex Among Young People and Implications for Health Promotion: A Qualitative Study in the UK,” BMJ Open 4, (2014): 1-6, doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-
004996; Joris Van Ouytsel, Koen Ponnet, and Michel Walrave, “The Associations Between Adolescents’ Consumption of Pornography and Music Videos and Their Sexting Behavior,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 17, no. 12 (2014): 772-778, doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0365; Eric W. Owens et al., “The Impact of Internet Pornography on Adolescents: A Review of the Research,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 19, (2012): 99-122, doi:10.1080/10720162.2012.660431; Carol J. Pardun, Kelly Ladin L’Engle, and Jane D. Brown, “Linking Exposure to Outcomes: Early Adolescents’ Consumption of Sexual Content in Six Media,” Mass Communication and Society 8, no. 2 (2005): 75-91, doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0802_1; Debra K. Braun-Courville and Mary Rojas, “Exposure to Sexually Explicit Web Sites and Adolescent Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors,” Journal of Adolescent Health 45, (2009): 156-162, doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.12.004; Emily F. Rothman et al., “Multi-Person Sex among a Sample of Adolescent Female Urban Health Clinic Patients,” Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 89, no.1 (2011): 129-137, doi:10.1007/s11524-011-9630-1; E. Häggström-Nordin, U. Hanson, and T. Tydén, “Associations Between Pornography Consumption and Sexual Practices Among Adolescents in Sweden,” International Journal of STD & AIDS 16, (2005): 102-107; Mara Morelli et al., “Sexting Behaviors and Cyber Pornography Addiction Among Adolescents: the Moderating Role of Alcohol Consumption,” Sexuality Research and Social Policy 14, (2016): 113-121, doi:10.1007/s13178-016-0234-0.
[15] Tracy L. Tylka and Rachel M. Calogero, “Perceptions of Male Partner Pressure to be Thin and Pornography Use: Associations with Eating Disorder Symptomatology in a Community Sample of Adult Women,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 52, (2019): 189-194, doi:10.1002/eat.22991; Amy E. Bonomi et al., “Fiction or Not? Fifty Shades is Associated with Health Risks in Adolescent and Young Adult Females,” Journal of Women’s Health 23, no. 9 (2014): 720-728, doi:10.1089/jwh.2014.4782; Julie M. Albright, “Sex in America Online: An Exploration of Sex, Marital Status, and Sexual Identity in Internet Sex Seeking and Its Impacts,” Journal of Sex Research 45, no. 2 (2008): 175–186, doi:10.1080/00224490801987481; Aline Wéry and Joel Billieux, “Online Sexual Activities: An Exploratory Study of Problematic and Non-Problematic Usage Patterns in a Sample of Men,” Computers in Human Behavior 56, (2016): 257-266, doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.046; American Psychological Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (2007), https://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf.
[16] Tori DeAngelis, “Web Pornography’s Effect on Children,” American Psychological Association 38, no. 10 (2007): 50; Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Exposure to a Sexualized Media Environment and Their Notions of Women as Sex Objects,” Sex Roles 56, (2007): 381-395, doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y; Elizabeth Oddone-Paolucci, Mark Genuis and Claudio Violato, “A Meta-Analysis of the Published Research on the Effects of Pornography,” in The Changing Family and Child Development, eds. Claudio Violato, Elizabeth Paolucci, and Mark Genuis (Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2000), 48–59; Doug McKenzie-Mohr and Mark P. Zanna, “Treating Women as Sexual Objects: Look to the (Gender Schematic) Male Who Has Viewed Pornography,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 16, no. 2 (1990): 296-308; American Psychological Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (2010), https://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf.
[17] Amy E. Bonomi et al., “Fiction or Not? Fifty Shades is Associated with Health Risks in Adolescent and Young Adult Females,” Journal of Women’s Health 23, no. 9 (2014): 720-728, doi:10.1089/jwh.2014.4782; David Horsey, “Internet Porn Is an Experiment in Dehumanization,” The Los Angeles Times, December 15, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/opinion/topoftheticket/la-na-tt-internet-porn-20141215-story.html; Neil M. Malamuth, “Pornography’s Impact on Male Adolescents,” Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 4, no. 3 (1993): 563-576; Kevin M. Williams et al., “Inferring Sexually Deviant Behavior from Corresponding Fantasies: The Role of Personality and Pornography Consumption,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, no. 2 (2009): 198-222, doi:10.1177/0093854808327277; Tori DeAngelis, “Web Pornography’s Effect on Children,” American Psychological Association 38, no. 10 (2007): 50; Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Exposure to a Sexualized Media Environment and Their Notions of Women as Sex Objects,” Sex Roles 56, (2007): 381-395, doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y; Silvia Bonino et al., “Use of Pornography and Self-Reported Engagement in Sexual Violence Among Adolescents,” European Journal of Developmental Psychology 3, no. 3 (2006): 265-288, doi:10.1080/17405620600562359.
[18] Thomas Edward Kasper, Mary Beth Short, and Alex Clinton Milam, “Narcissim and Internet Pornography Use,” Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 41, no. 5 (2015): 481-486, doi: 10.1080/0092623X.2014.931313; Michael Malcolm and George Naufal, “Are Pornography and Marriage Substitutes for Young Men?” Institute for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper Series 8679, (2014); Chyng Sun et al., “Pornography and the Male Sexual Script: An Analysis of Consumption and Sexual Relations,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 45, no. 4 (2016): 983-994, doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0391-2; Paul J. Wright, Robert S. Tokunaga, and Soyoung Bae, “More Than a Dalliance? Pornography Consumption and Extramarital Sex Attitudes Among Married U.S. Adults,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture 3, no. 2 (2014): 97-109, doi: 10.1037/ppm0000024; Amanda M. Maddox, Galena K. Rhoades, and Howard J. Markman, “Viewing Sexually-Explicit Materials Alone or Together: Associations with Relationship Quality,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 40, (2011): 441-448, doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9585-4; Pamela Paul, Pornified: How Pornography Is Damaging Our Lives, Our Relationships, and Our Families (St. Martin’s Press, 2006); Steven Stack, Ira Wasserman, and Roger Kern, “Adult Social Bonds and Use of Internet Pornography,” Social Science Quarterly 85, no. 1 (2004): 75-88, doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.08501006.x.
[19] Jennifer A. Johnson et al., “Pornography and Heterosexual Women’s Intimate Experiences with a Partner,” Journal of Women’s Health 28, no. 9 (2019), doi:10.1089/jwh.2018.7006; Chyng Sun et al., “Pornography and the Male Sexual Script: An Analysis of Consumption and Sexual Relations,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 45, no. 4 (2016): 983-994, doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0391-2.
[20] Samuel L. Perry, “Does Viewing Pornography Reduce Marital Quality Over Time? Evidence from Longitudinal Data,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 46, (2017): 549-559, doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0770-y; Pamela Paul, Pornified: How Pornography Is Damaging Our Lives, Our Relationships, and Our Families (St. Martin’s Press, 2006); Steven Stack, Ira Wasserman, and Roger Kern, “Adult Social Bonds and Use of Internet Pornography,” Social Science Quarterly 85, no. 1 (2004): 75-88, doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.08501006.x.
[21] Amanda M. Maddox, Galena K. Rhoades, and Howard J. Markman, “Viewing Sexually-Explicit Materials Alone or Together: Associations with Relationship Quality,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 40, (2011): 441-448, doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9585-4; Paul J. Wright, Robert S. Tokunaga, and Soyoung Bae, “More Than a Dalliance? Pornography Consumption and Extramarital Sex Attitudes Among Married U.S. Adults,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture 3, no. 2 (2014): 97-109, doi: 10.1037/ppm0000024.
[22] Angela C. Davis et al., “What Behaviors Do Young Heterosexual Australians See in Pornography? A Cross-Sectional Study,” The Journal of Sex Research 55, no. 3 (2018): 310-319, doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1417350; Ana J. Bridges et al., “Aggression and Sexual Behavior in Best-Selling Pornography Videos: A Content Analysis Update,” Violence Against Women 16, no. 10 (2010): 1065-1085, doi:10.1177/1077801210382866; Eran Shor, “Age, Aggression, and Pleasure in Popular Online Pornographic Videos,” Violence Against Women 25, no. 8 (2019): 1018-1036, doi:10.1177/1077801218804101. Of note, videos including more than two participants were not included in the analysis.
[23] L. Monique Ward, “Media and Sexualization: State of Empirical Research, 1995-2015,” The Journal of Sex Research 53, no. 4-5 (2016): 560-577, doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1142496; Gert Martin Hald, Neil N. Malamuth, and Theis Lange, “Pornography and Sexist Attitudes Among Heterosexuals,” Journal of Communication 63, (2013): 638-660, doi:10.1111/jcom.12037; Pertaining to “less progressive gender roles,” see also Jane D. Brown and Kelly L. L'Engle, “X-Rated: Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with U.S. Early Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Media,” Communication Research 36, no. 1 (2009): 129-151, doi:10.1177/0093650208326465.
[24] Elizabeth Oddone-Paolucci, Mark Genuis and Claudio Violato, “A Meta-Analysis of the Published Research on the Effects of Pornography,” in The Changing Family and Child Development, eds. Claudio Violato, Elizabeth Paolucci, and Mark Genuis (Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2000), 48–59; Gert Martin Hald, Neil M. Malamuth, and Carlin Yuen, “Pornography and Attitudes Supporting Violence Against Women: Revisiting the Relationship in Nonexperimental Studies,” Aggressive Behavior 36, (2010): 14-20, doi:10.1002/ab.20328; John D. Foubert, Matthew W. Brosi, and R. Sean Bannon, “Pornography Viewing among Fraternity Men: Effects on Bystander Intervention, Rape Myth Acceptance and Behavioral Intent to Commit Sexual Assault,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 18, (2011): 212-231, doi: 10.1080/10720162.2011.625552.
[25] Silvia Bonino et al., “Use of Pornography and Self-Reported Engagement in Sexual Violence Among Adolescents,” European Journal of Developmental Psychology 3, no. 3 (2006): 265-288, doi:10.1080/17405620600562359; Carl Göran Svedin, Ingrid Åkerman, and Gisela Priebe, “Frequent Users of Pornography. A Population Based Epidemiological Study of Swedish Male Adolescents,” Journal of Adolescence 34, (2011): 779-788, doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.04.010; Michele L. Ybarra and Richard E. Thompson, “Predicting the Emergence of Sexual Violence in Adolescence,” Prevention Science 19, no. 4 (2017): 403-415, doi:10.1007/s11121-017-0810-4; Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents and Pornography: A Review of 20 Years of Research,” The Journal of Sex Research, (2016): 1-23, doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441; Jane D. Brown and Kelly L. L’Engle, ibid.
[26] Michael C. Seto and Martin L. Lalumière, “What Is So Special About Male Adolescent Sexual Offending? A Review and Test of Explanations through Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin 136, no. 4 (2010): 526-575, doi:10.1037/a0019700; Michele L. Ybarra and Kimberly J. Mitchell, “Prevalence Rates of Male and Female Sexual Violence Perpetrators in a National Sample of Adolescents,” JAMA Pediatrics 167, no. 12 (2013): 1125-1134, doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2629; Michele L. Ybarra et al., “X-Rated Material and Perpetration of Sexually Aggressive Behavior Among Children and Adolescents: Is There a Link?” Aggressive Behavior 37, (2011): 1-18, doi:10.1002/ab.20367.
[27] Kara Anne E. Rodenhizer and Katie M. Edwards, “The Impacts of Sexual Media Exposure on Adolescent and Emerging Adults’ Dating and Sexual Violence Attitudes and Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Literature,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse (2017): 1-14, doi: 10.1177/1524838017717745; Neil M. Malamuth, Tamara Addison, and Mary Koss, “Pornography and Sexual Aggression: Are There Reliable Effects and Can We Understand Them?” Annual Review of Sex Research 11, no. 1 (2000): 26-91, doi:10.1080/10532528.2000.10559784; Neil M. Malamuth, Gert Martin Hald, and Mary Koss, “Pornography, Individual Differences in Risk and Men’s Acceptance of Violence Against Women in a Representative Sample,” Sex Roles 66, (2012): 427-439, doi:10.1007/311199-011-0082-6.
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